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  1. #1
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    .. .
    . () .



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    .

    ǡ ɻ 1945 ɺ ɡ 1968 1970 .
    1977 1979 - 1979 . ɺ . 130 ǡ ɡ ѡ ǻ ɡ ỡ ɡ .
    1959 : ɡ ɿ 20 ɡ . P .
    ǻ 100 10 ɡ ʻ ɻ ɺ .



    .

    .
    1968 ɡ .
    ӡ ɡ ̡ ɻ 11 ɡ .
    ɡ ǻ ǡ ɡ .
    ʡ .
    .
    ɡ 1913 ǡ 1925 ɡ ɡ () ȡ ȡ ɻ ɡ һ 1935.
    ǡ 1937 1939 ɡ ء ɡ 1953 ɡ 1956 ɡ ɡ . ɡ ɡ 70 ɡ . . ˻ .



    .

    .
    . 1938 ѡ ( - ) 1958 ӡ 1961 ɡ 1964 ɡ .
    1967 1972 ǻ . ѡ ѡ ɡ - 1975.
    12 ѡ ɡ ɡ ʡ ɡ ǡ 40 1985 1997 ɡ . . 31 ɡ : ǡ ʡ - ʡ . 540 ɡ .



    .

    .
    . ޡ ʡ ʡ .
    ɡ ʻ.
    ӻ ỡ ɻ ɻ : 800 ӡ .
    ɡ ɡ . ǡ ӡ .
    60 ɡ ɡ : ɡ ɡ ʡ . .



    .

    .
    18 1947 () . ǻ (1981 1984 1994) ǻ . 230 ݡ . . .
    . ǻ (1995) (1998). 2001 ߻. ɻ : ǡ .



    .

    .
    16 1935 ء 1962 ( 1962 2001) ( 1992).
    ϡ 400 ѡ ɡ 25 2500 .
    1980 2005. . 1992.
    65 2006 . . ( ) ǡ 2000 ɡ .




    .

    .



    .

    .
    1948 ǡ 35 .
    ҡ 1990 2001 200 ȡ ɡ ȡ ɻ .



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    .
    1946, 1963 1967 ҡ ɡ 1974 ǡ . 1976 1982 1990 ̡ Femto-Second , 1991 .
    : ɡ , . .

    .
    ϡ ʡ 30 ӡ ɡ ӻ Science 2001 : ɡ .
    200 24 ɡ 1971 .



    .

    .
    1951 ɡ ϡ . 1970 ̡ 1971 1980 - ̡ 1982 . 30 ǡ . 1987 ǡ ǡ ɡ ӡ 2003 15 ǡ .



    .

    .
    12 1346ܡ4 1928 . 1948 ǡ 1949 ̻ ɡ ǡ : 仡 ( ) 1959 1963 С .
    ǡ ߺ ɡ 1968 ɡ 1989 ɡ ɡ 1991 ( ).
    1967 ǻ ϡ ɻ ϻ .. ѻ ɻ 1976. 29 79 ɡ .. 仡 1967 300 ѡ ʡ 1981 1984. Ǻ 1986 1992.







    ɡ 1987 һ ( ).
    ѻ 1983 ǡ ɻ 1731 ǡ ǡ ǡ .


    ʡ ( ) ǡ ɡ .







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    ( ):

    1- ../ :

    GPS . GPS . . . .

    :
    http://www.ryerson.ca/civil/facstaff/Faculty/ahmed.html
    http://www.ryerson.ca/~rabbany/


    2- .. / :

    ": " . - - . . . .

    3- .. / :

    . Mobile Mapping and Mobile Sensors IAG FIG ISPRS. . .

    :
    http://mms.geomatics.ucalgary.ca/DrNaser
    . ( !) :
    http://www.geomatics.ncku.edu.tw/El-Sheimy.htm